CINNAMALDEHYDE-Everything the plants have that you want- LEARNING BY DOING SCIENCE…

Deep Chand Vashishtha, – M.Sc, MBA
NSM- Bioncia International Pvt Ltd

Science is a novel practise to allow potential of ingredients or elements. It will be very helpful when it meets your requirements So well said that Learning by Doing Science…Plant bioactive compounds, such as phytochemicals, in poultry diets, are gaining popularity due to their potential antioxidant and anti-microbial activities. Phytogenic feed additives (PFAs) have emerged as natural alternatives to antibiotic growth promotors and have great potential in the poultry industry. In recent years, cinnamon (one of the most widely used spices) has attracted attention from researchers as a natural product with numerous health benefits for poultry. The essential oils in cinnamon, in particular, are of interest because of their antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and hypocholesterolaemic effects, in addition to their ability to stimulate digestive enzymes in the gut.

Know Values of Poultry Industries
India Poultry Feed Market was valued at USD 3.27 billion in 2024 and is anticipated to project impressive growth in the forecast period with a CAGR of 6.21% through 2030.17 Sept 2024The demand for poultry feed is expected to increase due to the country’s growing poultry production, the expanding retail and food service industry, and advancements in poultry breeding techniques. However, high feed costs may put downward pressure on demand.

CINNAMALDEHYDE
Cinnamon belongs to the genus Cinnamomum (Lauraceae family) which contains more than 250–300 aromatic evergreen shrubs and plant trees However, only a few of these species have significant economic importance worldwide as a common spice including Cinnamomum zeylanicum (C. zeylanicum: True Sri Lankan cinnamon), C. cassia (Chinese cinnamon), C. burmanni (Indonesian cinnamon) and C. loureiori (Vietnamese cinnamon). The annual production of cinnamon is around 0.23 million metric tons, mainly cultivated in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, China, India, Vietnam, and Madagascar.

Phytochemistry Of Cinnamaldehyde
Phytochemicals are plant bioactive non-nutritive compounds that are usually found in small quantities They have different classes according to their structure and include phenolic compounds, phytosterols, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates, saponins, terpenoids, protease inhibitors and organo-sulfur containing compounds. They have significant antioxidant capacity to reduce and protect oxidative stress. Cinnamon consists of various bioactive compounds. Modern analytical techniques have enabled the characterization, identification, purification and quantification of individual compounds and the study of their potent biological activities. Generally, gas chromatography is applied to characterize volatile compounds while liquid chromatography for the identification of phenolic compounds. It is documented that cinnamon consists of natural antioxidant, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory components such as volatile oils, flavonoids, curcuminoids, coumarins, tannins, alkaloids, xanthones, terpenoids, phenolics and other compounds in significant amounts. The concentration of volatile compounds in cinnamon essential oil (CNO) mainly depends upon the plant parts (leaves, bark, root, stem) from which it is extracted. About forty-one volatile compounds were identified from the bark oil of cinnamon (C. cassia) tree. Cinnamaldehyde (55% to 78%) is the main flavor compound in CNO extracted from bark while eugenol (59–78%) is the main compound in CNO that is extracted from leaves. The volatile oil is approximately 0.6–1% and 1–2% phlobatannins, calcium oxalate, starch, mucilage, and mannitol (sweet) in the bark. Moreover, Kim, et al. further investigated the cinnamon bark oil through GC-MS (gas chromatography– mass spectrometry) and identified seventeen different bioactive compounds. The major bioactive compounds of cinnamon are cinnamaldehyde, cinnamate, cinnamic acid, all of which play vital roles in various biological activities. The different essential oils that have been reported in cinnamon include trans-cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, cinnamyl acetate, L-borneol, L-bornyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, E-nerolidol, α-thujene, α-cubebene, terpinolene and α-terpine [19]. The LC-MS (liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry) analysis has shown that the concentrations of condensed tannins, proanthocyanidins (PAs) and epicatechin in cinnamon are 26.8%, 23.2% and 3.6%, respectively. Cinnamon has a high polyphenol content and the anthocyanidins (A and B procyanidins) are also present in cinnamon

Poultry Gut Health
Efficient immune system development and proper digestion and absorption of feed, water, and electrolyte balance in the gut leads to the development of strong gut health in poultry. The gut ecosystem plays a vital role in eliminating toxins and infectious agents from the intestinal tract of the poultry. Many factors influence the gut microbial ecosystem, including feed additives (phytobiotics, prebiotics, probiotics, feed enzymes, organic acids etc.), feed composition, genetics, heat stress, feeding practices on the poultry farm, among others. These factors exert a substantial impact on the gut microbiota and poultry health. The association between gut health and poultry performance is widely accepted with optimal health including proper physiological functions of the intestinal tract, morphological integrity, efficient immune response, developed barrier functions, energy balance, tissue metabolism, sustained inflammatory balance and sufficient microbiota to perform desired functions in the gut. The health of poultry is influenced by the structure and functionality of gut microbiota. The progression of acquisition and maturation of the intestinal microbiota throughout the growth period of the poultry has a marked impact on the modulation of physiological functions (nutrient digestion, immunity, intestinal barrier integrity etc.) to maintain gut homeostasis and development of the intestinal epithelium. These functions are essential to optimize energy use and efficiency of extraction by the poultry birds.

Impact of Cinnamon on the Digestibility of Nutrients
Improved utilization of feed improves the feed conversion ratio (FCR), body weight gain (BWG) and overall health performance of broiler chicken. The stabilization of the gut microbiota ecosystem and the stimulation of digestive enzymes secretion are the two well-accepted mechanisms that play a leading role in improving feed utilization and inhibiting the growth-depressing ailments related to metabolism and digestion. The potential impacts of CNO on the secretion of digestive enzymes from the intestinal mucosa and pancreas have been described in many poultry studies. These positive impacts had been confirmed to improve the digestibility of nutrients. Additionally, the bioactive compounds of cinnamon affect lipid metabolism by transporting the fatty acids in the digestive tract of broilers. The CNO has positive effects on the secretion of digestive enzymes and improves the digestibility of nutrients in the gut.

Supplementation of CNO in broilers diet increased the villus height (VH) in the duodenum and jejunum with associated increased villus surface area and the efficiency of absorption and digestion of nutrients. In addition, a greater VH means greater mucosal digestive enzyme activity, which ultimately improves the digestibility of nutrients.
To sum up, the use of cinnamon and its bioactive compounds as feed additives in poultry diets have potent effects on antioxidant status, immunity, nutrients availability and digestibility, enzymes secretion, mucus production, gut microbiota and overall poultry health, growth performance and productivity

In the intricate world of animal nutrition, the significance of supplementing trace elements like Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Iodine (I), and Selenium (Se) cannot be overstated. These elements play a pivotal role in ensuring the health and performance of livestock. However, the basal amounts of these trace elements found in standard commercial feeds simply fall short of meeting the animals’ requirements.

The key to unlocking the full potential of these vital trace elements lies in its bioavailability. Bioavailability refers to the retention of a trace element within the gut intestinal tract and is profoundly influenced by antagonistic interactions, particularly in poultry where phytate emerges as the arch-nemesis of essential trace minerals. Phytate forms stubborn complexes with these minerals, rendering them insoluble and thus unavailable for absorption. To combat this antagonism, numerous trace mineral sources have been developed based on solubility and chemical bonding.

But that’s not all; the timing and level of trace mineral delivery also come into play. This realization has led to a groundbreaking concept in trace mineral solutions – the fusion of organic and hydroxy minerals. This innovative approach has the potential to not only maintain but also elevate animal performance under various farm conditions. It’s imperative to emphasize that the proper timing and dosage of trace elements are paramount for ensuring optimal animal performance.

In today’s world, livestock producers face immense challenges due to stringent governmental regulations aimed at addressing environmental concerns. The novel ideas discussed above offer a glimmer of hope, promising improved absorption and reduced trace element supplementation, all while preserving production performance.

In Bonds We Trust: How Bonding Revolutionizes Trace Mineral Bioavailability
Commonly used trace mineral sources in animal nutrition include sulfate-based and oxide-based minerals, primarily chosen for their affordability. Sulfate trace minerals form ionic bonds with sulfate ligands, readily dissolving in water at a neutral pH, but their instability leads to complexation with phytate, reducing bioavailability. Conversely, oxide minerals form covalent bonds, rendering them insoluble in neutral pH and partially soluble in low pH, further hindering absorption.
To overcome these challenges, organic trace minerals and hydroxy trace minerals have emerged. Organic trace minerals shield metal centers with amino acids or proteinate ligands, limiting the formation of phytate complexes. Hydroxy trace minerals, with their unique covalent crystal structure, prevent phytate complexation and gradually dissolve at low pH, enhancing absorption. Additionally, hydroxy minerals boast cost-effective hydroxy and chloride ligands.

Comparative studies reveal that both organic and hydroxy trace minerals significantly outperform sulfate sources, with hydroxy and organic trace minerals yielding similar results. For instance, in broilers, hydroxy Zn and organic Zn show 144% and 142% improved bioavailability compared to Zinc sulfate (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The tibia recovery of Zinc, of birds fed different sources of Zinc (Linear P<0.001).

Precision Matters: The Power of Optimal Particle Size and Density
Particle size and density often go overlooked when selecting trace mineral sources. Ideal particle size and density minimize feed segregation and ensure proper mixability during production. These considerations are crucial, particularly for animals with low feed intake, as it guarantees that their limited consumption contains all vital nutrients, including minerals. This improved mixability can be done through a patented process (Optisize technology) of creating optimal particles that ensures particle size consistency and highly uniform. Confirmed through laser diffraction analysis, the process results in the ideal particle size (150-300 µm) with the ideal density (0.8-1.0 g/mL), whether it is zinc, iron or manganese, for improved blending/mixing, flowability, and reduce the carry-over risk.

Studies conducted with different trace element sources, such as MnSO4 and Hydroxy Mn, indicate improved mixing in complete feeds, enhancing feed quality and nutrient distribution. This is measured through an improve coefficient of variation or CV (lower % cv indicates better mixing, Figure 2). The mixability of trace elements in a diet is of particular importance to young animals, as they have a lower feed intake and therefore more important to get all the required nutrients, especially minerals, despite the low feed intake. Moreover, spherical particles in hydroxy minerals reduce dust potential, reducing mineral source losses during handling.

Figure 2. Coefficient of variation of Manganese within complete feeds (Hydroxy Mn and MnSO4 shown in the blue and black color bar, respectively). 10 feed samples were analyzed per batch and difference to expected levels is determined.

Figure 3. Dust potential of different Manganese source.

Furthermore, hydroxy minerals with spherical particles reduced “dustiness” of the product, leading to a lower dust potential (a lower number of dust potential indicates a lower loss of mineral source, see Figure 3) and this also lessens the chance inhalation of the product by workers in the feed mill or premix facility. Although a larger mineral particle size is preferred in feed or premix production, within the animal, it is the other way around. With a smaller particle size, this will lead to a larger surface area, allowing for an improved availability of the mineral.

The Strength of Synergy: The Power of Combining Organic and Hydroxy Trace Minerals
While the practice of combining different trace element sources is not new, recent developments have brought forth a game-changing concept: the 70:10 ratio of hydroxy to organic minerals. This innovation stems from the collaborative efforts of leading industry experts and academic professionals dedicated to optimizing animal productivity and well-being.

Research demonstrates that the combination of hydroxy and organic minerals far surpasses sulfate, hydroxy, or organic-only sources, as well as combinations of sulfate and organic minerals in terms of animal performance (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Effect of different zinc sources on end weight of broilers at 42 day.

In another study, the results clearly showed that a combination of 70 ppm Zn from hydroxy mineral plus 10 ppm Zn from organic mineral was superior in terms of end body weight as well as improving feed conversion (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Effect of different zinc sources (80 ppm Zn from ZnSO4, Hydroxy, Organic, or combination of 70 ppm Zn Hydroxy plus 10 ppm Zn Organic) on end weight (P = 0.003) and FCR (P < 0.001) of broilers. Different labels (a,b,c) indicate significant differences. p < 0.05 indicate significant differences.

This synergy results from the complementary release profiles of the two technologies, allowing animals to absorb trace minerals efficiently throughout their intestinal tract. Thus, once hydroxy minerals reach the area of low pH they slowly begin to release the small molecules of soluble metals one layer at a time while organic minerals maintain their structural integrity. Given the different molecular structures of the soluble metals from hydroxy and organic minerals, their absorption is extended further down the gut intestinal tract (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Illustration of the complementary release profile of the combination of hydroxy and organic trace minerals throughout the intestinal tract.

In conclusion, the choice of a trace mineral source is pivotal for supporting productivity, animal health, and environmental sustainability. When choosing the right minerals, remember that the bonding type determines bioavailability, the particle size, density and synergy between two sources enhances efficacy. The combination of organic and hydroxy trace minerals presents a revolutionary solution, offering precise trace element delivery and enhanced absorption, ultimately leading to optimal animal performance. In a world with ever-increasing challenges, these innovations provide a beacon of hope for the future of animal nutrition.

For further information, kindly write to us at customercareindia@trouwnutrition.com or
visit our website: www.trouwnutrition.in

Feeding enzymes to poultry is one of the major nutritional advances in the last fifty years. It is the culmination of something that nutritionists realized for a long time but until 1980’s it remained beyond their reach. Indeed, the theory of feed enzymes is simple. Plants contain some compounds that either the animal cannot digest, or which hinder its digestive system, often because the animal cannot produce the necessary enzyme to degrade them. Nutritionists can help the animal by identifying these indigestible compounds and feeding a suitable enzyme. These enzymes come from microorganisms that are carefully selected for the task and grown under controlled conditions (Wallis, 1996).

The biggest single expense in any system of poultry production is feed accounting for up to 70% of total production cost per bird. Poultry naturally produces enzymes to aid the digestion of feed nutrients. However, they do not have enzyme to break down fiber completely and need exogenous enzymes in feed to aid digestion. Plants contain some compounds that either the animal cannot digest, or which hinder its digestive system, often because the animal cannot produce the necessary enzyme to degrade them. Nutritionists can help the animal by identifying these indigestible compounds and feeding suitable enzyme. These enzymes come from microorganisms that are carefully selected for the task and grown under controlled conditions. (Creswell, 1994)

Anti-nutritional factors are problematic for normal feed digestion, results in low meat and egg production causes low feed efficiency and digestive upsets. Feed enzymes work to make the nutrient (starch, protein, amino acids and minerals, etc.) available from the feed ingredients. Feed enzymes also help to reduce the negative impact of animal production over environment by reducing the animal waste production. These Enzymes are proteins that are ultimately digested or excreted by the animal, leaving no residues in meat or eggs (Greiner and Konietzny, 2006).

The poultry industry readily accepts enzymes as a standard dietary component, especially in wheat and barley-based rations. But still many questions are partially answered. For example, how do enzymes work? Do growth rates reflect differences in the potency of different enzyme preparations? What is the link between gut viscosity, enzyme action and growth rates? and are enzymes necessary in all poultry rations? (Annison & Choct,1991).

2. Enzyme Supplementation in Poultry Ration

2.1. Enzyme
Enzymes are biological catalyst composed of amino acids with vitamins and minerals. They bring about biochemical reactions without themselves undergoing any change. They are involved in all anabolic and catabolic pathways of digestion and metabolism. Enzymes tend to be very specific catalysts that act on one or, at most, a limited group of compounds known as substrates. Enzymes are not living organisms and are not concerned about viability or cross infection. They are stable at 80-85 degree centigrade for short time. The benefits of using enzymes in poultry diets include not only enhanced bird performance and feed conversion but also less environmental problems due to reduced output of excreta. In addition, enzymes are a very useful tool in the study of physiological and metabolic mechanisms (Panda et al 2011).

2.2. Enzymes in Poultry Nutrition: The use of enzymes in animal feed is of great importance. Consistent increase in the price of feed ingredients has been a major constraint in most of the developing countries. As a consequence, cheaper and non-conventional feed ingredients have to be used which contain higher percentage of Non-Starch Polysaccharides (soluble and insoluble/crude fibre) along with starch. Non Starch Polysaccharides (NSPs) are polymeric carbohydrates which differ in composition and structure from starch (Morgan et al., 1995) and possess chemical cross linking among them therefore, are not well digested by poultry. A part of these NSPs is water-soluble which is notorious for forming a gel like viscous consistency in the intestinal tract (Ward et.al,1995) thus by reducing gut performance.

Poultry do not produce enzymes for the hydrolysis of Non-Starch Polysaccharide present in the cell wall of the grains and they remain un-hydrolysed. This results in low feed efficiency. Research work has suggested that the negative effects of NSPs can be overcome by dietary modifications including supplementation of diets with suitable exogenous enzyme preparations (Creswell, 1994). Enzymes break down the NSPs, decreases intestinal viscosity and eventually improve the digestibility of nutrients by improving gut performance.

Stallen South Asia Pvt Ltd has developed XZYME, a multi-enzyme formulation designed to optimize poultry feed utilization comprehensively. This innovative product combines various enzymes strategically selected to address specific nutritional challenges in poultry diets.

a) Cellulase
Cellulase is an enzyme complex that breaks down cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants. Cellulose is composed of long chains of glucose molecules linked together by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds, making it a tough and fibrous substance that many animals, including poultry, cannot digest on their own. Cellulase enzymes help in hydrolyzing these bonds, converting cellulose into simpler, more digestible sugars.
b) Xylanase
Xylanase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes xylan into xylose, a simpler sugar. Xylan is a type of hemicellulose, which, like cellulose, is a polysaccharide present in plant cell walls. Xylanase breaks the β-1,4-glycosidic bonds in xylan, making it easier for poultry to digest plant-based feed ingredients.
c) β-Glucanase
β-Glucanase is an enzyme that plays a significant role in poultry nutrition by breaking down β-glucans, which are complex polysaccharides found in the cell walls of cereals such as barley, oats, and wheat. β-glucans are glucose polymers linked primarily by β-1,3 and β-1,4 glycosidic bonds. These β-glucans can be problematic in poultry diets because they increase the viscosity of the intestinal contents, hindering nutrient absorption and overall digestion. Here’s an overview of β-glucanase and its benefits in poultry nutrition.
d) Phytase
Phytase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of phytic acid (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate), a form of phosphorus that is commonly found in plant seeds and grains. Phytic acid binds phosphorus in a form that is not readily available to poultry because they lack sufficient endogenous phytase activity to break down this compound.
Phytase hydrolyzes phytic acid through a stepwise removal of phosphate groups, resulting in the release of inorganic phosphorus and lower inositol phosphates. This process occurs primarily in the stomach and upper small intestine of poultry, where the pH conditions are favorable for phytase activity.
e) Alpha-Amylase
Amylase acts on the α-1,4-glycosidic bonds within the starch molecule. Alpha-amylase randomly cleaves these bonds along the starch chain, resulting in the production of smaller carbohydrate molecules like maltose, dextrins, and glucose. These simpler sugars are then readily absorbed in the small intestine and utilized for energy.
f) Pectinase
Pectinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of pectin, a structural polysaccharide in the cell walls of plants, particularly in fruits and vegetables. Pectin consists of a complex set of polysaccharides rich in galacturonic acid. Pectinases include a group of enzymes such as polygalacturonase, pectin lyase, and pectinesterase that break down pectin into simpler molecules like galacturonic acid, arabinose, and methanol which can be more readily absorbed by the poultry’s digestive system.
g) Protease
Protease is a type of enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds within proteins, converting them into smaller peptides and free amino acids. These simpler molecules are more easily absorbed and utilized by the poultry for various physiological functions.
h) Lipase
Lipase enzymes work by hydrolyzing the ester bonds within triglycerides, breaking them down into free fatty acids and glycerol. This process primarily occurs in the small intestine, where lipase from the pancreas mixes with dietary fats, facilitating their breakdown and subsequent absorption by the intestinal cells.

3. Benefits of XZYME:

Benefits of using feed enzymes to poultry diets include; reduction in digesta viscosity, enhanced digestion and absorption of nutrients especially fat and protein, improved Apparent Metabolizable Energy (AME) value of the diet, increased feed intake, weight gain, and feed–gain ratio, reduced beak impaction and vent plugging, decreased size of gastrointestinal tract, altered population of microorganisms in gastrointestinal tract, reduced water intake, reduced water content of excreta, reduced production of ammonia from excreta, reduced output of excreta, including reduced N and P (Campbell et al. 1989).
a) Reduction in Digesta Viscosity: (Morgan et al,1995) found that that enzyme supplementation of wheat-based diets significantly reduced foregut digesta viscosity of birds. The reduction in foregut digesta viscosity was achieved primarily by reducing the molecular weight through hydrolysis of xylan backbone by endo-xylanase into smaller compounds and thus reduction in viscous effects of the feed because foregut digesta viscosity is directly proportional to the molecular weight of wheat arabinoxylans (Bedford and Classen, 1993).
b) Increase in Available Energy: One of the main reasons for supplementing wheat- and barley-based poultry diets with enzymes is to increase the available energy content of the diet. Increased availability of carbohydrates for energy utilization is associated with increased energy digestibility (Partridge and Wyatt ,1995). The AME of wheat has been extensively studied and found to have a considerable range i.e 9500–16640 kJ/kg (Mollah et al. 1983). Enzyme supplementation improves this range by enhancing carbohydrate digestibility, reducing gut viscosity, and improving fat utilization (Almirall et al. 1995).
c) Improvement in Nutrient Digestibility: Enzymes have been shown to improve performance and nutrient digestibility when added to poultry diets containing cereals, such as barley and wheat (Fengler et al. 1988).
d) Health improvement: Morgan and Bedford (1995) reported that coccidiosis problems could be prevented by using enzymes. Birds fed a wheat-based diet with and without glycanase supplementation showed vastly different responses to coccidiosis challenge. Growth was depressed by 52.5% in the control group but by only 30.5% in the enzyme group, which also had a much better lesion score. An increase in digesta passage rate and a reduction in excreta moisture are often noted when glycanases are added to poultry diets, which may be detrimental to the life cycle of the organism.
e) Impact on Environment: Enzymes have been approved for use in poultry feed because they are natural products of fermentation and therefore pose no threat to the animal or the consumer. Enzymes not only will enable livestock and poultry producers to economically use new feedstuffs, but will also prove to be environmentally friendly, as they reduce the pollution associated with animal production. As well as contributing to improved poultry production, feed enzymes can have a positive impact on the environment. In areas with intensive poultry production, the phosphorus output is often very high, resulting in environmental problems such as eutrophication.
This happens because most of the phosphorus contained in typical feedstuffs exists as the plant storage form phytate, which is indigestible for poultry. The phytase enzyme frees the phosphorus in feedstuffs and also achieves the release of other minerals (e.g. Ca, Mg), as well as proteins and amino acids bound to phytate. Thus, by releasing bound phosphorus in feed ingredients, phytase reduces the quantity of inorganic phosphorus needed in diets, makes more phosphorus available for the bird, and decreases the amount excreted into the environment.

Conclusion:
XZYME represents a significant advancement in poultry nutrition, offering a tailored solution to maximize feed efficiency and optimize poultry health. With its comprehensive enzyme blend and proven effectiveness, XZYME supports sustainable and profitable poultry production practices.

References:
Almirall, M., M. Francesch, A. M. Perez-Venderell, J. Brufau, and E. Esteve-Garcia. (1995). The differences in intestinal viscosity produced by barley and ß-glucanase alter digesta enzyme activities and ileal nutrient digestibilities more in broiler chicks than in cocks. Journal of Nutrition 125: 947–955.

Annison, G. and M. Choct. (1991). Anti-nutritive activities of cereal non-starch polysaccharides in broiler diets and strategies for minimizing their effects. World’s Poultry Science Journal 47: 232–242.

Bedford, M.R. and H. L. Classen. (1993). An in-vitro assay for prediction of broiler intestinal viscosity and growth when fed rye-based diets in the presence of exogenous enzymes. Poultry Science 72: 137-143.

Campbell, G.L., B. G. Rossnagel., H. L. Classen and P. A. Thacker. (1989). Genotypic and environmental differences in extract viscosity of barley and their relationship to its nutritive value for broiler chickens. Animal Feed Science and Technology 226: 221–230.

Creswell, D.C. (1994). Upgrading the nutritional value of grains with the use of enzymes. Technical bulletin, American Soybean Association, 341 Orchard Road No.11-03 Liat Towers, Singapore.
Fengler, A.I. and R. R. Marquardt. (1988). Water-soluble pentosans from rye. II. Effects on the rate of dialysis and on the retention of nutrients by the chick. Cereal Chemistry 65: 298–302.

Greiner, R., Konietzny, U., 2006. Phytase for food applications. Food Technol. Biotechnol., 44(2): 125-140.

Mollah, Y., Bryden, W.L., Wallis, I.R., D. Balnave and E. F. Annison. (1983). Studies on low metabolisable energy wheats for poultry using conventional and rapid assay procedures and the effects of processing. British Poultry Science 24: 81–89.

Morgan, A.J. and M. R. Bedford. (1995). Advances in the development and application of feed enzymes. Australian Poultry Science Symposium 7: 109–115.

Panda A.K., S. V. Rama Rao, M. V. L. N. Raju, M. R. Reddy and N. K. Praharaj. 2011. The Role of Feed Enzymes in Poultry Nutrition.

Partridge, G. and C. Wyatt (1995). More flexibility with new generation of enzymes. World Poultry 11(4), 17–21.

Wallis, I. (1996). Enzymes in poultry Nutrition. Technical Note, SAC.West Mains road, Edinburgh.

Ward, N.E. (1995). With dietary modifications, wheat can be used for poultry. Feedstuffs 7 Aug, 14-16.

Most grains used in feed are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination, causing severe economic losses all along feed value chains. As skyrocketing raw material prices force producers to include a higher proportion of economical cereal byproducts in the feed, the risks of mycotoxin contamination likely increase. In this article, we review why mycotoxins cause the damage they do – and how effective toxin-mitigating solutions prevent this damage.

Mycotoxin contamination of cereal byproducts requires solutions
Cereal byproducts may become more important feed ingredients as grain prices increase. But also from a sustainability point of view and considering population growth, using cereal byproducts in animal feed makes a lot of sense. Dried distiller’s grains with solubles (DDGS) are a good example of how byproducts from food processing industries can become high-quality animal feed.

Figure 1: Byproducts are a crucial protein source (data from FEFAC Feed & Food 2021 report)
Still, research on what happens to mycotoxins during food processing shows that mycotoxins are concentrated into fractions that are commonly used as animal feed
(cf. Pinotti et al., 2016.) To safeguard animal health and performance when feeding lower-quality cereals, it is essential to monitor mycotoxin risks through regular testing and to use toxin-mitigating solutions.

Problematic effects of mycotoxins on the intestinal epithelium
Most mycotoxins are absorbed in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract. This absorption can be high, as in the case of aflatoxins (ca. 90%), but also very limited, as in the case of fumonisins (< 1%); moreover, it depends on the species. Importantly, a significant portion of unabsorbed toxins remains within the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract.

Importantly, studies based on realistic mycotoxin challenges (e.g., Burel et al., 2013) show that the mycotoxin levels necessary to trigger damaging processes are lower than the levels reported as safe by EFSA, the Food Safety Agency of the European Union. The ultimate consequences range from diminished nutrient absorption to inflammatory responses and pathogenic disorders in the animal (Figure 2).

1. Alteration of the intestinal barrier ‘s morphology and functionality
Several studies indicate that mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1, DON, fumonisin B1, ochratoxin A, and T2, can increase the permeability of the intestinal epithelium of poultry and swine (e.g. Pinton & Oswald, 2014). This is mostly a consequence of the inhibition of protein synthesis.

As a result, there is an increase in the passage of antigens into the bloodstream (e.g., bacteria, viruses, and toxins). This increases the animal’s susceptibility to infectious enteric diseases. Moreover, the damage that mycotoxins cause to the intestinal barrier entails that they are also being absorbed at a higher rate.

2. Impaired immune function in the intestine
The intestine is a very active immune site, where several immuno-regulatory mechanisms simultaneously defend the body from harmful agents. Immune cells are affected by mycotoxins through the initiation of apoptosis, the inhibition or stimulation of cytokines, and the induction of oxidative stress.

For poultry production, one of the most severe enteric problems of bacterial origin is necrotic enteritis, which is caused by Clostridium perfringens toxins. Any agent capable of disrupting the gastrointestinal epithelium – e.g. mycotoxins such as DON, T2, and ochratoxin – promotes the development of necrotic enteritis.

3. Alteration of the intestinal microflora
Recent studies on the effect of various mycotoxins on the intestinal microbiota show that DON and other trichothecenes favor the colonization of coliform bacteria in pigs. DON and ochratoxin A also induce a greater invasion of Salmonella and their translocation to the bloodstream and vital organs in birds and pigs – even at non-cytotoxic concentrations.

It is known that fumonisin B1 may induce changes in the balance of sphingolipids at the cellular level, including for gastrointestinal cells. This facilitates the adhesion of pathogenic bacteria, increases in their populations, and prolongs infections, as has been shown for the case of E. coli. The colonization of the intestine of food-producing animals by pathogenic strains of E. coli and Salmonella also poses a risk for human health.

4. Interaction with bacterial toxins
When mycotoxins induce changes in the intestinal microbiota, this can lead to an increase in the endotoxin concentration in the intestinal lumen. Endotoxins promote the release of several cytokines that induce an enhanced immune response, causing inflammation, thus reducing feed consumption and animal performance, damage to vital organs, sepsis, and death of the animals in some cases.

The synergy between mycotoxins and endotoxins can result in an overstimulation of the immune system. The interaction between endotoxins and estrogenic agents such as zearalenone, for example, generates chronic inflammation and autoimmune disorders because immune cells have estrogen receptors, which are stimulated by the mycotoxin.

Increased mycotoxin risks through byproducts? Invest in mitigation solutions.
To prevent the detrimental consequences of mycotoxins on animal health and performance, proactive solutions are needed that support the intestinal epithelium’s digestive and immune functionality and help maintain a balanced microbiome in the GIT. As the current market conditions will likely engender a long-term shift towards the inclusion of more cereal byproducts in animal diets, this becomes even more important.

Trial data shows that EW Nutrition’s toxin-mitigating solution SOLIS MAX provides effective protection against feedborne mycotoxins. The synergistic combination of ingredients in SOLIS MAX mycotoxins from damaging the animals’ gastrointestinal tract and entering the blood stream:

In-vitro study shows SOLIS MAX’ strong mitigation effects against wide range of mycotoxins
Animal feed is often contaminated with two or more mycotoxins, making it important for an anti-mycotoxin agent to be effective against a wide range of different mycotoxins. A dose response evaluation of SOLIS MAX was conducted a at an independent laboratory in Spain, for inclusion levels of 0.10%, 0.15%, and 0.20% (equivalent to 1 kg, 1.5 kb, and 2 kg per ton of feed). A phosphate buffer solution at pH 7 was prepared to simulate intestinal conditions in which a portion of the mycotoxins may be released from the binder (desorption).

Each mycotoxin was tested separately by adding a challenge to buffer solutions, incubating for one hour at 41°C, to establish the base line (see table). At the same time a solution with the toxin challenge and SOLIS MAX was prepared, incubated, and analyzed for the residual mycotoxin. All analyses were carried out by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with standard detectors.

The results demonstrate that SOLIS MAX is a very effective solution against the most common mycotoxins found in raw materials and animal feed, showing clear dose-response effects.

Mycotoxin risk management for better animal feed
A healthy gastrointestinal tract is crucial to animals’ overall health: it ensures that nutrients are optimally absorbed, it provides effective protection against pathogens through its immune function, and it is key to maintaining a well-balanced microflora. Even at levels considered safe by the European Union, mycotoxins can compromise different intestinal functions, resulting in lower productivity and susceptibility to disease.

The globalized feed trade, which spreads mycotoxins beyond their geographical origin, climate change and raw material market pressures only escalates the problem. On top of rigorous testing, producers should mitigate unavoidable mycotoxin exposures through the use of solutions such as SOLIS MAX – for stronger animal health, welfare, and productivity.

References are available on request.

Introduction
Poultry nutritionists must search for ways to lower the overall cost of feed as the price of dietary energy sources continues to rise steadily. As a result, they have at times opted to incorporate lower-quality energy feed ingredients as a solution to this problem. These methods may cause the birds to perform poorly in terms of feed conversion ratio, body weight gain, and overall low productivity. Feathered creatures are by nature omnivores that are designed from an early age to consume both plant and animal materials. But for several reasons, the diet of chickens is increasingly changing to a vegetarian diet. This change caused the loss of some important entities, such as creatine, a key substance in meat that is not found in plants. Creatine is a crucial compound for cellular energy production. Creatine phosphate is the primary substance responsible for supplying ATP, the cell’s energy source. When creatine is not obtained through diet, the body’s creatine levels decrease and must be replenished through endogenous amino acid synthesis. Poultry farming has experienced significant growth in recent years, with poultry production increasing by nearly four times since 1957. This growth has been primarily driven by the rise in carcass (+12%) and breast meat production (+50%). What if we could enhance embryo development by providing a readily available energy source to improve hatchling survival and the first days of life? This can be achieved by supplementing broiler breeders with creatine. Creatine enables muscle cells to generate additional energy by converting low-energy ADP back into ATP. While creatine is naturally present in muscle tissue and animal-derived foods, the concentrations in animal proteins can vary widely due to the quality of raw materials and the instability of creatine under harsh processing conditions. Moreover, animal protein is seldom included in animal feed, as most bird feed is composed of plant proteins and grains.

Benefits of Creatine Forerunner
Even though birds have the ability to produce their own creatine, the amount generated is insufficient to meet the demanding growth and performance needs of modern broilers. The early stages after hatching are crucial for the development of efficient broilers, as they require a significant amount of energy. This is why creatine plays a vital role in this process. While creatine can be transferred from the hen’s diet and synthesis to the egg, the levels passed on are typically low. By supplementing broilers with creatine, we can ensure that the embryo receives an additional energy reserve that can be utilized post-hatching. However, creatine is sensitive to heat and can be lost during the preparation of bird feed supplements.

A strategic solution is to include the creatine precursor guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) in the mix, which supports optimal nutritional conditions. GAA is converted to creatine in the liver and stored in muscle tissue, making it a valuable addition to animal feed for broilers.

Effects of Maternal Nutrition on Hatchability
New research from Israel has revealed significant findings that support the transfer of creatine from chicken to chicken when GAA (creatine precursor) is added.
Some research indicates that supplementing broilers with GAA may impact the accumulation of creatine in laying hens. The addition of GAA to chicken feed has been proven to boost the creatine levels in both egg yolk and albumin, with the most noticeable impact seen in the yolk, which is crucial for embryo development. By including dietary GAA (0.15%), the creatine content of the entire egg can be increased by over 40%.

GAA: What does it ENTAIL?
Natural amino acid derivative guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) is widely known for its pivotal function in the manufacture of creatine, a vital substance involved in the metabolism of cellular energy. GAA, sometimes referred to as betacyamine or glycocyamine, has been studied as a dietary supplement for increasing energy. In vertebrate animals, GAA is the sole direct precursor that produces creatine. Glycine and arginine are the building blocks for the synthesis of GAA, a metabolic intermediate product that is mostly produced in the kidney and pancreas. GAA is converted to creatine by methylation once it reaches the liver. In the creatine biosynthesis pathway, the primary regulated and rate-limiting step is the synthesis of GAA from arginine and glycine. Interestingly, this synthesis is accomplished in different organs, the first step (synthesis of guanidinoacetic acid from arginine and glycine) taking place in the kidney, the second one (synthesis of creatine from guanidinoacetic acid) in the liver. Thus, guanidinoacetate is synthesized in the kidney, and then transported to the liver where it is converted to creatine, which is then transported to its destination organs.

GAA Biosynthesis
The synthesis of guanidinoacetate requires two amino acids, arginine and glycine. Arginine transfers its amidino group to the amino group of glycine to produce ornithine and GAA, catalyzed by L-arginine: glycine amidino transferase (AGAT). Guanidinoacetate is then methylated by the methyl group of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which is synthesized from methionine. This reaction produces creatine and S-adenosylhomocysteine ​​(SAH) and is catalyzed by guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase (GAMT). Creatine synthesis is an inter-organ metabolic process, with GAA synthesis occurring primarily in the kidney and GAA methylation occurring primarily in the liver. The addition of GAA for creatine synthesis imposes a methylation demand on the body because creatine synthesis is considered to be the major user of methyl groups from SAM (S-adenosyl methionine). Thus, methyl group of betaines can be used in transmethylation reactions for synthesis of creatine and may reduce the requirement for other methyl group donors such as methionine and choline. Betaine is an osmolyte that helps maintain cellular water homeostasis and serves as a methyl group donor, which are its two main metabolic functions. It has been shown that the antioxidant mechanism of betaine strengthens non-enzymatic antioxidant defenses.


Appropriate GAA Dose
The growth performance of broiler chickens may be successfully enhanced by dietary supplementation of 600-1200 mg/kg GAA. The lowest dose required to boost performance is 600 mg/kg GAA. GAA concentrations up to 1500 mg/kg feed did not affect broiler performance or mortality; However, at 3000 mg/kg feed, food intake and body weight decreased somewhat, although not significantly. Feed intake was significantly affected by the highest level of inclusion (6000 mg GAA/kg feed), resulting in a significant reduction in weight gain. GAA treatment had no apparent effect on mortality or feed efficiency.

Why is GAA Used?
· As a creatine precursor GAA plays an important role in energy metabolism.
– However, due to the instability of creatine in the production process and cost, GAA has been studied as an effective alternative to creatine supplements.
– GAA has been tested as a potential feed additive to improve energy utilization and growth performance in poultry.
– GAA has been combined with methionine to improve growth performance and may also act as an arginine sparing agent in birds.
– GAA supplementation increases growth, reproductive performance and meat quality in poultry.
– Among its many proven benefits, GAA effectively improves feed conversion ratio and animal performance.
– GAA has many roles outside of creatine, including stimulation of insulin secretion, neuromodulation and vasodilation.
– Supplemental GAA improves growth performance in heat-stressed chickens.
– Cold stress is another physical environmental stress that hugely impacts the poultry industry. During commercial broiler production, cool temperatures are the primary cause of ascites and related deterioration of growth performance. Dietary inclusion of 1.2 g/kg GAA and betaine improved FCR in broilers under cold stress, suggesting GAA can be used as an efficient supplement to improve the harmful effects of cold stress in broilers.
– Furthermore, GAA can be utilized as a feed supplement in intensive rearing systems to improve feed efficiency and minimize myopathies in the pectoral muscle.
– Supplemental GAA can be used to enhance the fertility rate and sperm penetration in aged broiler breeder hens, possibly by increasing ATP availability in sperm mitochondria, thereby increasing sperm motility and fertility rate.
– Another way that has the potential to increase the productivity of native chickens is to use betaine. Betaine has an effect as a methyl donor for methionine and its diverse physiological properties can improve the intestinal environment and increase the ability of feed absorption. Accumulation of betaine in cells may protect against osmotic stress.
– GAA is known to have an antibacterial effect.
– GAA is safe and potentially efficacious in poultry nutrition, supporting growth in chickens for fattening.

Conclusion
There is a growing body of research dedicated to determining the most effective methods for feeding day-old chicks in order to ensure they develop into healthy, rapidly growing birds. Solutions range from providing small, easily digestible feed pellets to utilizing specially designed feeders that allow young chicks to access their food with ease. Enhancing the nutritional content of eggs with creatine to better align with the physiological needs of modern broilers is a crucial step towards enhancing broiler production in terms of health, growth, and efficiency. Recent studies on using GAA as a creatine source have shown that incorporating GAA into the diet of broiler breeder hens is a practical and efficient approach to achieving this goal.

Spirulina Algae for Chickens – Nutritional Benefits and Commercial Potential

Dr.Partha P. Biswas M.Sc.,Ph.D.,F.Z.S.,F.Z.S.I.
Former Asso. Professor & H.O.D., Dept. of Zoology, R.K.Mission V.C.College, Kolkata ,W.Bengal.
Senior Consultant, Aqua-Vet inputs, Fin-O-Wing Formulations, Kolkata-700084

Natural ingredients are becoming more popular in chicken feed as a substitute for artificial colouring, antibiotics, and other chemicals that compromise human health and safety. One of the best natural feed additions for animals and poultry feed that improves nutritional content is spirulina, a microscopic alga. All of the necessary vitamins, minerals, and amino acids are present in spirulina. Moreover, it contains a wealth of fatty acids and carotenoids, particularly γ-Linolenic acid (GLA), which has been linked to positive health effects. But what sets spirulina apart as a novel animal feed is its high protein concentration (55 to 65%). For improved growth and decreased mortality, animal meals are supplemented with spirulina powder. Furthermore, these microalgae have been observed to have a high nutrient digestibility and an amino acid pattern that may be on par with or better than that of other vegetable diets and feeds. Aside from these, spirulina also includes colours (including β-carotene and zeaxanthin), phycobilin proteins (such phycocyanin, which is exclusive to cyanobacteria), vitamins, and macro and micro mineral components. These substances function as immunity boosters and colourants or disclose possible biological qualities as antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory effects.

Spirulina is a type of blue green algae
These days, taxonomists, at least, agree that all Spirulina grown for commercial purposes belongs in the genus Arthrospira. Since this material is currently so well-known by this name, it appears inevitable that it will continue to be used; however, it should be written as Spirulina or spirulina, without the italics.

Spirulina is a microscopic algae, also known as blue-green algae. It belongs to the Cyanophyceae family. They feed themselves  through photosynthesis like plants, but their cells do not have a cellulose membrane like bacteria (which explains their very high digestibility, about 83%). The two most commonly used species are Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima. In India, Spirulina fusiformis is also considered a parent plant.

The name spirulina is derived from the Latin word meaning spiral or spiral. It is most often found in sea and brackish water. The blue- green color of the organism is due to the presence of several photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin. Phycocyanin is responsible for the blue color of the body. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), spirulina is an interesting food rich in iron and protein and declared it as the best food of the future.

Fig.1 Scanning electron micrograph of morphology of Spirulina (Arthrospira)

Fig.2 Arthrospira platensis

Health benefits of Spirulina

1. Dietary supplementation of Spirulina can beneficially affect gut microbial population.
2. It affects serum biochemical parameters, and growth performance of chicken.
3.It contains polyphenolic contents having antibacterial effects.
4.It also has considerable quantities of unique natural antioxidants including polyphenols, carotenoids, and phycocyanin.
5. In addition to acting directly on the bacteria by weakening and increasing the permeability of the bacterial cell walls, which ultimately causes cytoplasmic content leakage. Spirulina extracts also inhibit bacterial motility, invasion, biofilm formation, and quorum sensing.
6. Spirulina has demonstrated antiviral properties against a number of common animal viruses, and it is possible that these properties could also be beneficial against viruses that infect birds. Spirulan, an internal polysaccharide of spirulina that is rich in calcium, may have an antiviral effect by preventing the entry of various viruses into host cells, increasing nitric oxide production in macrophages, and inducing the release of cytokines.
7. When added to chicken feed, it has immune modulatory effects that may increase resistance to disease and enhance survival and growth rates, especially in stressful situations.
8. The high nutrient digestibility of these microalgae is superior to or comparable with that of other vegetable diets and feeds.
9. Soybean meal in particular can be partially replaced by spirulina in place of more conventional protein sources.
10. In addition to the numerous Omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids that make up 25% and 60% of the total fatty acids in spirulina, other polyunsaturated fatty acids that are present in spirulina include oleic acid, linoleic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), sulfolipids, and glycolipids.
11. Carotenoids, or pigments containing chlorophyll and β-carotene, are also present in spirulina (4000 mg/kg).
12. Spirulina also contains phytobiliproteins, vitamins, and macro- and micromineral elements such as calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, zinc, and selenium. 13.In addition, pro-vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K, various B vitamins, polysaccharides, and antioxidants are all significant components of spirulina.
14.Hens and cocks showed significantly improved FCR when fed the basic diet supplemented with 2 or 3 g spirulina/kg diet during the laying period from 29 to 40 weeks of age.
15. A higher zinc content in spirulina such as this could be the cause of the improvement in cellular immunity seen in response to dietary supplementation of spirulina.
Tropical Climate in Tamil Nadu, South India, is perfect for Spirulina Cultivation

The warm tropical climate of Tamil Nadu is perfect for spirulina cultivation. In fact, certain varieties of spirulina grow naturally there. The ideal temperature range for growing spirulina in Tamil Nadu is between 25°C and 35°C. The best places to grow spirulina are also the ones that receive the most sunlight in the growing season. Spirulina is cultivated in large plastic or cement water tanks. The standard container size for spirulina is 10 x 5 x 1.5 feet, but containers can be of any size. It should be able to effectively pump 1000 liters of water, because this is the amount needed to fill to a height of 2-3 meters. After 3–4 weeks, or when the crop has reached a sufficient density, the crop can be harvested. When the spirulina is mature, it is pumped out of the pond to a collection point where the algae are filtered through stainless steel screens. The strained spirulina algae paste is then applied and washed three times with drinking water before it goes into a drying vessel, which turns it into a powder.Spirulina Hub, a Hyderabad-based enterprise, produces flakes, capsules, tablets, and powder for use in a range of dietary supplements.

Fig.4.Ladies involved in the spirulina industry

Morphology of Spirulina
Spirulina consisted of multicellular, filamentous, unbranched trichomes. The filaments were referred to as ‘trichomes’. The trichomes have a length of 50–500 μm and a width of 3–4 μm.The cells were cylindrical and the spiral was loose. There were gas filled vacuoles within the cells and the filaments had a helical shape. Multiplication occurs only by fragmentation of a trichome.

Fig.5. A Hyderabad based company is providing organic Spirulina powder in four different forms (powder, liquid, tablet & capsules, and flakes forms) to meet the needs of consumers for immediate use. (Permission taken for using this image for illustration purposes.)

Increases Immunological Functions in Chickens
In poultry, some recent studies have shown that feeding SP is responsible for improvement of immune functions, subsequently increased disease resistance, improved survival and growth rates Spirulina supplementation at 10,000 ppm ( = 1% ) level increased candidate NK-cell activity by two-fold over the controls. This may enhance disease resistance potential in chickens. Research conducted supplementation of the heat-exposed broilers diet with Spirulina and found enhanced humoral immunity response. Improvement in cellular immunity observed in response to dietary supplementation of Sprirulina might be attributed to higher Zn concentration in spirulina.

Better Serum Biochemistry by Spirulina Supplementation
Addition of up to 6 g/kg spirulina to the normal diet of broilers can improve the hematological and serum biochemistry of broiler chickens. Spirulina supplementation reduced serum urea and creatinine levels, suggesting that only microalgae promote more efficient nitrogen utilization. , which promotes a better balance between the body’s protein synthesis and the body’s protein breakdown.

Powerful Antioxidant Activity in Spirulina
Antioxidants counteract free radicals, preventing cell damage. ROS (reactive oxygen species), especially H2O2, disrupt the physiological equilibrium in tissues by breaking down biological components such proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. SOD (superoxide dismutases) catalyses the dismutation(a type of redox process involving simultaneous reduction and oxidation) of hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen. SODs are the first line of defence against damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

These protect tissues from oxidative damage by converting superoxide radicals (O2-) into molecular O2 and H2O2.The primary enzyme in cells that scavenges hydrogen peroxidase and transforms it into water is glutathione peroxidase (GPx). SOD and GPx have the ability to directly offset oxidative stress and shield cells from DNA damage. Heat stress causes lipid peroxidation in cell membranes and increases corticosterone release, both of which promote oxidative tissue damage.Increased levels of MDA (mitochondrial malondialdehyde) and decreased activities of serum SOD and GPx in broilers exposed to high temperatures result in an imbalance in the oxidants/ antioxidants system and oxidative stress. Therefore, organic substances that counteract free radicals may help to rebalance the ratio of antioxidants to oxidants, promoting growth and better health. C-phycocyanin, a strong antioxidant, is one of the main components of Spirulina platensis. As a result, when compared to other heat-exposed birds in the current study, broiler chickens exposed to heat and fed 2% spirulina in their diet showed significantly lower MDA levels and higher SOD and GPx activities.

Feeding Spirulina & Chicken Meat Colour
One of the most crucial aspects that consumers consider when assessing fresh meat products is the color of the meat. Customers’ decisions about meat are largely influenced by the color and flavor of the meat. The color of chicken meat can be controlled with dietary spirulina, particularly in the range where the fillets made from feeding spirulina do not fall entirely into the dark or light meat categories. The high levels of carotenoids in the microalgae are probably what caused the darker, redder, and more yellow coloration of the breast filets fed on spirulina. According to some research findings, the common yellow pigment associated with the buildup of zeaxanthin in meat may correspond with the increase in yellowness associated with dietary spirulina content. Therefore, dietary spirulina is a powerful tool for adjusting the color of chicken meat. The addition of dietary spirulina at 1% of the total ration one week prior to slaughter has been found to produce the most consumer-preferred levels of muscle tissue pigmentation in broiler meat.

Spirulina Improves Chicken Meat Quality
The taste of the samples fed on spirulina was less metallic, and compared to the control group, the samples from the two alternate feed groups were softer and more tender. According to one study, adding S. platensis to broiler chicken diets can improve performance metrics, fatty and amino acid profiles, antioxidant status, and meat quality. In a similar vein, other researchers found that adding 15% of spirulina to broiler diets produced good-quality breast and thigh meat from chickens with higher levels of saturated fat, total carotenoids, and yellowness. As previously mentioned, feeding broilers spirulina, particularly at 1% and 2%, dramatically decreased the serum levels of total lipid, triglycerides, and cholesterol when compared to the control group.
Following spirulina supplementation, the fatty acid profile of the thigh meat of broiler chickens has been improved, particularly for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids.

Spirulina & Superior Egg Quality
In order to maximize egg production and maintaining flock health, feeding practices for laying hens are crucial. Particular focus is placed on the type, quantity, and caliber of protein provided in feeds. Egg quality is improved when spirulina is fed to the hens. The profitability of chicken production and consumer satisfaction are both impacted by the quality of the eggs produced. Egg weight, egg mass, and laying rate are all increased when 0.1%, 0.15%, and 0.2% spirulina is added to the diet, according to research. A useful natural feed supplement, spirulina at a concentration of 0.3% enhances the laying ability, egg quality, and hepatoprotective activity of hens. Feeding with spirulina considerably raises the average weight, color, and strength of the eggshell. A diet containing 2.0%-2.5% of spirulina significantly increases the egg yolk colour.

Conclusion
Animal nutritionists are paying close attention to alternative protein sources such as algae meals in order to substitute soybean meal (SBM). Spirulina microalgae meal appears to be a very viable option for SBM in broiler diets, at least in part. Spirulina has already been studied in relation to feeding additives for many of the most commonly farmed animal species. These trials’ outcomes have demonstrated increased output, better health, and higher-quality products. Many of the findings, nevertheless, run counter to one another. As a result, more spirulina research is required. In the near future, research on spirulina’s active components and associated biological pathways will contribute to our understanding of the plant’s potential, application, and implications for sustainable animal production.

Prospects of Yeast Based Feed Additives in Poultry Nutrition

Dr.Partha P. Biswas M.Sc.,Ph.D.,F.Z.S.,F.Z.S.I.
Former Associate Professor & H.O.D.
Dept. of Zoology, R.K.Mission V.C.College,
Kolkata 700118,W.Bengal.
Senior Consultant, Aqua-Vet inputs,
Fin-O-Wing Formulations, Kolkata-700084

Due to the constant growth of the world’s population and the ban on the use of antibiotics, the production of livestock and poultry faces serious obstacles to meet the demand for meat, dairy products and eggs. Animal nutritionists are now forced to look for natural antibiotic substitutes because of this ban. In this regard, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC), or baker’s yeast, has attracted much interest in the last ten years. The use of probiotics is one of the most important ways to organically replace antibiotic growth promoters, or AGPs, in chicken feed. The live microbial culture contained in probiotics affects the intestinal microbiota and improves health by competing with the exclusion of pathogens. Two types of bacteria, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria, and yeast, especially SC, are the most important probiotic cultures used in poultry feed.

Enhancing Poultry Production with Yeast Products
Yeasts are eukaryotic unicellular microorganisms with a diameter of 3-40 microns. Of all the yeast species, S. cerevisiae is the facultative anaerobic fungus that has been used the most as a probiotic or prebiotic in poultry feed. Nutritional yeast has shown great ability to promote nutritional efficiency by stimulating digestive enzymes, enhancing immune responses and maximizing overall health. European countries have recognized SC as a safe additive in animal feed, and the US Food and Drug Administration has declared this yeast as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Prebiotics such as fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), MOS and glyco-oligosaccharides (GOS) have received much global attention and appear particularly promising. MOS are glucomannan protein complexes isolated mostly from yeast cell walls. In addition, β D-glucans are usually extracted from yeast cell walls (YCW).They are naturally active compounds that play an important role as biological response modifiers. Yeast can be added to bird feed in an amount of 5.0-10.0 g/kg feed.

Yeast Products
There are several types of yeast supplements, such as active yeast, yeast cell wall (YCW), purified cell wall components, and yeast cultures or extracts after yeast fermentation. These additives differ in appearance, composition of biologically active components and use in the production system.
In addition, yeast processing or fermentation conditions,
as well as yeast serotypes or strains, greatly affect the final product and subsequent livestock nutritional outcomes. Therefore, when choosing yeast ingredients, it is important to understand the differences between alternative products.As a feed additive for livestock and poultry breeding, active dry yeast has higher microbial activity. Dietary supplementation with heat-resistant active yeast number (>109 CFU) significantly improves the feed intake (at 50 mg i.e., 1 × 109 cfu /kg broiler diet ).

Yeast as Probiotic for Poultry
In poultry, the benefits of yeast probiotic supplements include increasing the production performance of broilers and increasing the resistance of chickens to enteric pathogens (Salmonella, Campylobacter jejuni, C. perfringens, or E. coli).In addition, yeast probiotic supplementation significantly reduces the colonization rate of Salmonellae. Yeast dietary supplements for birds and ducks can modulate the intestinal microbiota, inhibit bacterial colonization of the gastrointestinal tract.

Effects on Performance of Broilers
Yeast and its products can promote the growth of broilers, reduce morbidity and mortality. Because of their potential properties, their use in poultry feeding has numerically improved poultry performance on an industrial scale. The mechanism of action of beneficial effects of yeast includes: stimulation of brush-border disaccharidases, anti-adherence effect against pathogens and activation of non-specific immunity, binding of toxins and antagonistic effect against pathogenic organisms. The effect of YC supplementation on broiler performance is more evident during the growing period.It appears that an adaptation period is required before the effects of YC supplementation can be significant, as changes in intestinal morphology and immune responses take time.

Performance Of Layers Adding SC In Diet
It is well known that yeast derivatives have a positive effect on egg-laying activity. Addition of baker’s yeast (0.15 and 0.20%) significantly increased the egg production rate of layers compared to the control group during the 10-week experimental period. Addition of yeast culture (SC) (0.05, 0.1, 0.2%) to the diet of laying hens (18-19 weeks) shows the desired effect on body weight, FCR and egg production. With better FCR, yeast significantly (0.1, 0.2%) increases egg production and final body weight.

YC Increases P and Ca Digestibility
Supplemental YC increases P and Ca digestibility. Earlier studies also reported improved utilization of phosphorus or calcium in phosphorus-insufficient or sufficient diets of poultry when YC was supplemented. Some investigators reported that YC contains 1,400 units/kg of phyase. The improvement of P or Ca utilization could partly be attributed to phytase activity of YC.

Yeast-derived Prebiotics B-Glucans
The cell wall of baker’s yeast, or SC, has the most β-glucan. The β-glucan is a water-soluble polysaccharide composed of glucose units. It is an economic by-product of yeast, it has several health effects with its bioactive properties. However, the degradation and fermentation properties of yeast-derived β-glucan are still unknown.

Current research shows that yeast β-glucan can improve intestinal health and is one of the candidate prebiotics to stimulate intestinal health in aged chickens. Several reports indicate that b-glucans have significant immune-stimulating and modulating effects. They are able to promote immunity in broilers by activating macrophages and protect against oncogenesis.

Mannan Oligosaccharides
Mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) are mannose-containing carbohydrates found in the yeast cell wall. Because birds do not have enzymes to break down the mannan backbone, this oligosaccharide reaches the lower GI tract undigested. It is an immune system stimulant and can alter toll-like receptor (TLR) gene expression and stimulates cytokine production. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pathogen recognition receptors. In addition, MOS regulates the expression of cytokine genes, including interleukin-12 (IL-12) and interferon-c (IFN-c), which are important cytokines involved in enhancing the immune response of chickens (0.2% diet of broilers feed).

Effect of Yeast Supplementation on Gut Health
Numerous studies have been conducted on the use of yeast in animal diets to control intestinal health. Dietary yeast cell wall (YCW) affects how broiler chicks’ intestines look. Increased villus breadth, height, and number of goblet cells in the duodenum are observed in broilers fed YCW. When YCW was added to broiler meals, the growth phase’s FCR increased in comparison to control birds.

Immunomodulatory Functions of YC
Studies have verified that yeast culture (YC) inhibits harmful bacteria or promotes the growth of germs. The components of YC cell walls, namely β-glucans and α-mannans, have the potential to shield the mucosa by limiting pathogens from attaching to the vesicles and reducing the amount of antigen that comes into touch with them.The concentration of serum lysozyme, a non-specific immunological effector mostly released by phagocytes, was linearly enhanced by dietary YC. The duodenum of birds fed a diet supplemented with YC had greater levels of sIgA. The concentration of sIgA rose linearly with the dietary YC content. This implies that YC has the ability to increase the humoral immune system’s production of antibodies.

Limitations of Dietary Yeast Supplementation
While DYS is unquestionably a promising feed additive, its greater quantities in chicken feed have raised concerns about how its high phenolic and calcium content may negatively effect phosphorus absorption. High amounts of non-starch polysaccharides are abundant in DYS. Furthermore, a larger dietary intake of nucleic acid can decrease uric acid output in individuals with elevated DYS levels, which might result in severe metabolic abnormalities and anorexia.

FIG.1: Yeast extracts have shown promising use as an alternative to antibiotics. These extracts have found great penetration in animal feed applications due to their ability to improve the performance of poultry & other animals including fish.

Fig.2: Scanning Electron Micrograph of cells of SC

Fig.3: Main effects of live yeast on poultry birds

Dr. Sundus Gazal1, Dr. Sabahat Gazal2, Dr. Anvesha Bhan3 and Dr. Shalini Pandey4
1,2,3Division of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, SKUAST-Jammu
4Department of Veterinary Microbiology, RPS Veterinary College, Mahendragarh

Introduction:
Poultry farming is an integral part of the global food supply chain, meeting the demand for protein-rich meat and eggs. Achieving optimal growth, health, and productivity in poultry operations is essential for farmers to meet market demands and ensure profitability. A critical factor in achieving these goals lies in implementing effective feeding strategies. In this article, we will explore in-depth the various facets of poultry feeding that can lead to increased productivity, streamlined operations, and improved economic outcomes.

Nutrient Balance:
At the core of successful poultry feeding is providing a balanced and nutritionally rich diet as poultry convert feed into food products quickly, efficiently, and with relatively low environmental impact relative to other livestock. Their high rate of productivity results in relatively high nutrient needs. Poultry require a complex combination of nutrients including proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals for their growth and well-being. Feed ingredients for poultry diets are selected for the nutrients they can provide, the absence of anti-nutritional or toxic factors, their palatability or effect on voluntary feed intake, and their cost. Poultry require at least 38 nutrients in their diets in appropriate concentrations and balance. These nutritional requirements evolve as birds progress from chicks to mature individuals, necessitating careful adjustment of feed formulations at different growth stages depending on the requirements related to production (e.g., growth, feed efficiency, egg production), prevention of deficiency symptoms, and quality of poultry products.

Feed Formulation:
Feed formulation involves quantification of the amount of feed ingredients required to be combined to form a single uniform balanced diet for poultry which can supply all the nutritional requirements of the birds. Since feed accounts for 65-75% of total live production costs for most types of poultry throughout the world, a simple mistake in diet formulation can be extremely expensive for a poultry producer. It requires a thorough understanding of the nutrient requirements of the class of poultry (e.g., egg layers, meat chickens or breeders); feed ingredients in terms of nutrient composition and constraints in terms of nutrition and processing; and cost and availability of the ingredients. The quality of feed directly impacts the health and growth of poultry. Opting for high-quality ingredients ensures that the feed is easily digestible and minimizes wastage. In addition to energy and protein, the formulations should also contain supplements to provide minerals, vitamins and specific amino acids.

These supplements must be added to all diets as they provide essential nutrients necessary for health and performance. Modern feed formulations also contain a diverse range of non-nutritive additives, which may not be essential but have an important bearing on performance and health. A major factor to be considered in selecting these additives is their efficacy as they are used in only small quantities, which makes it particularly important that they are mixed carefully with the main ingredients so that they are evenly distributed. Beyond ingredient selection, the form of feed also matters. Pelleted or crumbled feeds have been shown to enhance feed efficiency, minimize waste, and improve nutrient absorption. There are several systems of feeding: free-choice or “cafeteria style” feeding of mash and grain, controlled feeding of mash and grain, feeding all mash, or other combinations of a complete feed. Each system should accommodate the specific needs of the flock, and be designed for flexibility, low maintenance, and reliability to keep installation and operating costs low. The choice of one of these feeding systems will depend mainly upon the size of the flock and the labour and equipment available.

Incorporating feed additives further supports digestive health and nutrient utilization. These additives are primarily included to improve the efficiency of the bird’s growth and/or laying capacity, prevent disease and improve feed utilisation. Common feed additives used in poultry diets include probiotics, prebiotics, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers, binders, pH control agents, enzymes, flavour enhancers, artificial and nutritive sweeteners, colours, lubricants, etc. Modern intensive poultry production has achieved phenomenal gains in the efficient and economical production of high quality and safe chicken meat, eggs and poultry bioproducts by the use of properly balanced high quality feed and feed additives.

Feeding Programs:
Developing a structured feeding schedule is a cornerstone of effective poultry management. Birds of different ages have distinct nutritional requirements. Therefore, a well-designed feeding program must align with the specific age and purpose of the poultry – whether they are being raised for meat or egg production. Gradual transitions between feed formulations during growth phases prevent digestive disturbances and ensure a smooth progression from one growth stage to another.

Water Management:
Water is a critical, but often overlooked, nutrient. Uninterrupted access to clean and fresh water is a fundamental aspect of poultry health and growth. Adequate hydration plays a pivotal role in determining feed intake and metabolic processes. A consistent supply of clean water supports efficient nutrient absorption, aids in digestion, and contributes to the overall well-being of the birds. Effective water management complements the feeding strategy and maximizes its impact.

Feeding Space and Equipment:
Creating an environment that minimizes stress during feeding times is crucial. Sufficient feeding space is essential to prevent competition and aggression among birds, ensuring equitable access to feed. Without a good feed distribution and sufficient feeder space the smaller or less aggressive birds will not get their share of the available daily feed amount, and uniformity will suffer. Employing appropriate feeding equipment that minimizes wastage while facilitating easy access to feed enhances consumption efficiency and reduces unnecessary costs. A good feeder should be durable enough to withstand frequent cleaning; stable enough not to be knocked over; of the correct height and depth; bird proof (such that birds cannot get into it or roost in it); and equipped with a lip to prevent birds from spooning feed out onto the floor with their beaks. The height of the feed inside the feeder, which should never be more than one-third full, should be level with the back of the birds, to prevent them from scratching contaminated litter into the feeders and to limit feed wastage.
Feeders can be made of wood, sheet metal or bamboo, and are best suspended from the roof to keep rats out.

Natural Foraging and Enrichment:
Encouraging natural behaviors among poultry is vital for their welfare and productivity. Allowing outdoor access or enriching the indoor environment with opportunities for foraging, pecking, and exploration engages the birds both physically and mentally. Environmental enrichment strategies are used to help prevent boredom and improves the physical and mental wellbeing of the flock. It helps reduce bullying amongst flock members, improves mental and physical health, and decreases the likelihood of injuries. Enrichment strategies are aimed at increasing opportunities for the animals to engage in natural behaviours that they would normally do in the wild. The five different forms of enrichment include cognitive, foraging (food), social, sensory, and environmental. This engagement reduces stress levels and enhances overall health, translating into improved productivity.

Monitoring and Record Keeping: Record keeping involves taking notes about what happens on the farm and involves information with regards to feed, water, medicine, and other items used on the farm. It also includes documenting any problems or events that happen on the farm and includes regular assessment of the growth and well-being of the flock. Maintaining accurate records of key metrics such as feed consumption, weight gain, and mortality rates provides valuable insights into the success of the chosen approach. This data-driven approach empowers farmers to make informed adjustments and continuously refine their feeding strategy. Records tell a manager where the business/operation has been and the direction in which it is going. Records show the strength and weaknesses of the poultry operation. They provide useful insight to financial stability for the flock. If there are any shortcomings, records will show where adjustments can be made.

Health and Biosecurity:
A robust health management strategy is pivotal in ensuring optimal feed intake and growth. A poultry operation’s success or failure can be dramatically affected by biosecurity, which is the effective use of standard hygienic practices. Biosecurity comprises of the Structural biosecurity which includes all facets pertaining to facilities and equipment; and Operational biosecurity which refers to normal tasks carried out on a farm on a regular basis, such as staff entry, vehicle entry and disinfection, pest management, garbage disposal, etc. Stringent biosecurity measures help prevent the introduction and spread of diseases that can disrupt feed consumption and growth rates. Regular veterinary supervision is essential to monitor flock health, identify potential issues, and recommend appropriate interventions. A strong health foundation lays the groundwork for the effectiveness of the feeding strategy.

Adaptation and Innovation:
The field of poultry nutrition is dynamic, with new technologies and methodologies constantly emerging. Poultry farmers must stay informed about advancements and be willing to embrace innovative practices. Artificial intelligence is a powerful tool that could help poultry produces improve efficiency and address welfare and health challenges. This technology has many possible applications for poultry operations. Examples include machine learning, camera vision and acoustic monitoring to improve bird welfare and share data with veterinarians. Automation can be used to replace manual labor on poultry farms when it comes to repetitive tasks like checking bird welfare, removing welfare, vaccinations and managing litter. In addition to this, precision feeding, automated systems, and data analytics are examples of innovations that can fine-tune feed efficiency, reduce costs, and amplify overall productivity.

Economic Considerations:
Profitability is a central concern for poultry farmers. Feed is the major component of input cost, accounting for up to 70% of the total production cost. Effective feeding strategies strike a balance between input costs and output gains. Conducting comprehensive cost-benefit analyses empowers farmers to make informed decisions regarding feed formulations, feed conversion ratios (FCR), and other critical factors that directly influence the financial bottom line.

Conclusion:
Implementing a thoughtfully designed feeding strategy is the linchpin of successful poultry farming. By focusing on nutrient balance, feed formulation, feeding schedules, and other key elements, poultry farmers can elevate the productivity and profitability of their operations. Continuous monitoring, adaptability to new techniques, and unwavering commitment to bird health are instrumental in ensuring long-term success in the ever-evolving realm of poultry farming. Through these efforts, poultry farmers not only meet the global demand for food but also uphold the well-being of their flocks and the sustainability of their operations.