Dr. Sekhar Basak
CMD, Innovista Group

At Innovista, we understand the paramount importance of maintaining optimal flock health and maximizing productivity in the poultry industry. To achieve this, we have developed a comprehensive approach known as integrated health management programs, which combine cutting-edge technologies, precision nutrition, and strategic disease management practices.

The cornerstone of an effective integrated health program is the synergistic combination of vaccinations and anticoccidial interventions. By employing these two elements harmoniously, we can provide comprehensive protection against the threat of coccidiosis, a parasitic disease that can severely impact bird health and performance.

Vaccinations play a pivotal role in stimulating the flock’s immune response, preparing the birds to mount an effective defense against coccidial infections. Simultaneously, the judicious use of anticoccidial products, such as ionophores or synthetic chemicals, helps to minimize the severity of coccidiosis outbreaks and mitigate the associated economic losses.

At Innovista, we recognize the invaluable expertise of veterinary professionals in implementing successful integrated health programs. Their in-depth knowledge and
experience allow them to design tailored vaccination protocols, guide the prudent use of anticoccidials, and continuously monitor flock health through regular observations and data analysis.

Effective integrated health programs rely on a data-driven approach, leveraging monitoring systems and analysis tools to gather insights into flock performance, environmental conditions, and potential health challenges. This enables proactive adjustments and optimizations to the program based on real-time information.

We believe that the journey to optimal flock health begins at the hatchery. By administering coccidial vaccines early in the birds’ lives, we can stimulate their immune
systems and establish a robust foundation for future disease resistance. This controlled exposure to coccidia facilitates the development of robust immunity, reducing the risk of disease outbreaks and economic losses down the line.

Building upon this foundation, we integrate in-feed anticoccidials into our integrated health programs, providing continuous protection against coccidiosis throughout the
production cycle. Our careful selection of ionophores or synthetic chemicals ensures effective control of coccidial infections while minimizing the impact on beneficial gut bacteria and promoting overall intestinal health.

At Innovista, we firmly believe that collaboration between our team of experts and poultry producers is the key to success. By combining our extensive knowledge, data-driven insights, and a commitment to best practices, we can tailor integrated health programs that optimize flock health, enhance productivity, and drive sustainable growth in the poultry industry.

Contact us at info@innovistaconsulting.com or +91 9871203111.

Introduction
Avian mycoplasmosis was primarily described in turkeys in 1905 and in chickens in 1930. There are 23 named species of mycoplasma recovered from avian sources but only two of them are established pathogens for domestic poultry as Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) causes ‘Chronic Respiratory Disease’. Mycoplasma pathogens cause upper respiratory and locomotory illness in chickens and other avian species. They are responsible not only for clinical diseases but also for decreased weight gain, lowered feed conversion efficiency, reduced hatchability, and downgrading at slaughter (Bradbury, 2001).

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection in the commercial poultry industry is common in many areas. Despite the great efforts by poultry breeding companies made towards eradication of pathogenic mycoplasmas from poultry flocks, Still Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection is of continuing economic concern in commercial broiler breeder chicken flocks. Failure in eliminating the disease in grandparent (GP) stock, it persists in broiler breeders and broilers through vertical transmission. The continued presence of MG in commercial broiler breeder flocks suggests that efforts at eradication were not highly successful. This organism is smaller than common bacteria and larger than viruses, but lacks a cell wall. This characteristic makes MG extremely fragile (no cell wall) and difficult to culture (specialised growth requirement) and host adapted (avian only).
Respiratory tract infections are of great importance in poultry industry, causing heavy economic losses. Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae are the most pathogenic organisms of the respiratory tract.

Other respiratory tract infections include both viral pathogens (Newcastle disease virus, Infectious bronchitis virus, avian influenza virus) and bacterial pathogens (Salmonella pullorum, Escherichia coli, Avibacterium paragallinarum, etc) cause disease independently and in association with each other and causes Complex Chronic Respiratory Disease (CCRD).

Mycoplasma control for any companies requires integrated approach involving diligent biosecurity, animal husbandry & disease survivallance. The consequences of wide spread infection in breeder operation can be devastating result of both as direct and indirect losses occurring throughout the production cycle (Ley,2003).

Transmission
MG and MS can spread through horizontally and vertically route of susceptible birds with infected chickens; spread may also occur by contaminated airborne dust, droplets, or feathers (Ley and Yoder, 1997). It can be transmitted through the chicken hatching egg to the offspring. MG has been isolated from the oviduct of infected chickens and semen of infected roosters (Yoder and Hofstad, 1964).

Clinical Sign
Both diseases are economically important, egg transmitted, and hatchery disseminated diseases. They lead to tremendous economic losses in poultry production as a result of decreased hatchability and egg production, reduced quality of day-old chicks, reduced growth rate. Chicken showed swelling of the facial skin, and the eyelids, increased lacrimation, congestion of conjunctival vessels, and respiratory rales.

Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) infection is usually known as infectious synovitis, an acute-to-chronic infectious disease for chickens involving primarily the synovial membranes of joints and tendons sheaths. However, during recent years, MS has less frequently been associated with synovitis but more frequently associated with airsacculitis in chicken.

Pathogenesis
It is presumed that MG enters the respiratory tract by inhalation of aerosols or via the conjunctiva and attaches to mucosal cells by its well-organized terminal organelles, which remains and spread in respiratory system.

As MG & MS are exhibiting with no cell wall, it is readily killed by most of the disinfectants, heat, and sunlight, and does not survive for prolonged periods outside the host. MG can remain viable
1. Chicken faeces for 1-3 days at 20°C,
2. Muslin cloth 3 days at 20°C or 1 day at 37°C,
3. In egg yolk 18 week at 37°C or 6 week at 20°C.

It only remains viable in the environment, outside the chicken, for typically up to 3 days. For this reason, MG is fairly easy to eliminate on single age, all-in all-out poultry farms Since MG can be transmitted vertically. Establishing the MG-clean status of breeder flocks and maintaining that status can be accomplished by participation in control programmes. An MG eradication programme may be initiated by treatment of breeders and their hatching eggs to reduce egg transmission. Attempts to eliminate egg transmission of MG by medication of breeder flocks or their progeny with antimycoplasmal prevention drug have generally been able to produce considerable reduction in rate of MG infection but generally were not adequate to obtain entirely infection-free flocks. Previously successful methods were the treatment of hatching eggs with heat and/or antimycoplasmal. For heat treatment eggs were gradually heated in a forced-air incubator to reach an internal temperature of 46.10C over 12-14 hour and then allowed to return to room temperature (Yoder, 1970). Hatchability was sometimes reduced 8-12%, but MG and MS appeared to be inactivated. Egg dipping with a temperature or pressure differential has been used by several researchers as a means of getting antibiotics into hatching eggs to eliminate egg transmitted MG (Alls et al., 1963;Hall et al., 1963; Stuart and Bruins, 1963).

Losses Can Occurs as Result of
1. Decreased egg production
2. Decreases egg hatchability
3. Decreased day old chick quality and chick viability
4. Increase chick mortality
5. Higher FCR and low weight gain
6. Costly control measures involving biosecurity, vaccination & medication.

Control of pathogenic avian mycoplasma can consist of one of three general approaches, according to Kleven (2008): The mycoplasma infection are transmitted both horizontally and vertically and it’s remained in the flock constantly as sub clinical form. To control MG infection in broiler breeder, laying hens and commercial broilers chicken the major specific focus is given on vaccination and medication.

1. Maintenance of Flocks, which are Free of Infection.
To keep a flock free of infection is difficult, especially in areas where large populations of chickens have grown up, as the industry has expanded. To maintain freedom from mycoplasma requires a mycoplasma free source, on a single age, ‘all in all out’ site, with good biosecurity and an effective monitoring system.

2. Control by Vaccines
The use of mycoplasma vaccines in breeding & laying hens has grown over recent years to reduce the impact of infections, but these can confuse the usual serological monitoring systems. They may control an infection in the chicken clinically but there is still a potential risk of vertical transmission to the egg and chick. Vaccination could not completely prevent the occurrence of EAA, although a significant reduction of EAA egg production (approximately 50%) was recorded. Moreover, a delay in the onset of egg production was observed in the vaccinated birds (Feberwee et.al. 2009).

1. Killed/Inactivated Vaccines
– These are M. gallisepticum killed organisms with oil emulsion adjuvants to protect the birds from infection with virulent M. gallisepticum.
– Several adjuvant enhanced bacterin vaccines but they are expensive and administration is difficult because they need to be injected twice with a 4-6 week interval (Ley, 2003).
– Killed vaccines have been shown to reduce, but not eliminate the M. gallisepticum infection and are not effective in long term control of infection in multiple age farms.
Killed vaccination did not reduce horizontal spread of M. gallisepticum (Levisohn et. al.,2000).
– These are more stable and safer than live vaccine.

2. Live/Attenuated Vaccine
There is three type of live vaccines is available for M. gallisepticum viz.
A. Connecticut F-Strain
B. MG 6/85 Strain
C. TS-11 Strain (temperature Sensitive Mutants)

A. Connecticut F-Strain
– Live F-strain M. gallisepticum vaccine is a relatively mild strain that originate from the Connecticut F strain of United States. Despite the advantages of the f-strain vaccine it has many of the disadvantages of the inactivated vaccines.
– MG free chickens tend to lay better than F-strain immunised ones.
– F-strain is too virulent for young chicks.
– F-strain is capable of lateral spread in the flock.
– F-strain does not completely block trans ovarian transmission when birds are challenged with virulent MG.

B. MG 6/85 STRAIN
– The 6/85 strain of MG is in lyophilised form and originate from United States.
– It has low virulence in chicken.
– Vaccinates were protected against airsacculitis and colonisation of the trachea was detectable from 4 to 8 weeks after vaccination (Ley, et. al., 1997).

C. TS-11 STRAIN
– ts-11 is a live chemically induced mutant strain of MG is in frozen form and developed from Australian MG field isolate (Whithear et. al.,1990a).

3. Control by Special Antibiotics
Medication of a flock but can prevent subsequent losses in breeders & laying hens. MS Infections could be treated with antimicrobial use in breeders, layers flock and eggs to prevent vertical transmission.
Control of MG and MS infection in broiler chicken by medication is the most practical way to minimize the transmission of disease and economic losses.
– The most important macrolide agent used for treatment and control of mycoplasma infection is Tilmicosin Phosphate.
– Tilmicosin is a broad-spectrum bacteriostatic synthesized from tylosin molecule which is having 75 percent more intra alveolar concentration in the lungs tissue to work efficiently against mycoplasma as organism remain intracellular in the cell and tissue.

In Broiler Breeder & Commercial Layers
– It is very important to treat chicks from day first of life to combat against mycoplasma, Tilmicosin Phospate-25% @ dose rate of 15-20mg/kg body weight through drinking water for 3 successive days every 5 weeks up to for 16th to 20th weeks.

– After 20th or 24th week incorporate Tiamulin through feed as per recommendation of veterinarian.

– It is emphasized to follow best antimycoplasmal drug prevention programme through feed.

In Commercial Broilers
– It is suggested to use Tylosin Tartarate 100% through drinking water for first 3 days @ dose rate of 65 mg/kg of BW.

– In high risk or known source of infected breeders it is suggested to use Tilmicosin Phosphate-25% through drinking water for first 3 days @ dose rate of 15mg/kg of BW.

The medication can be repeated on a monthly, three weekly or two weekly basis depending on the mycoplasma status of the flock or the ‘risk’ of breakdown from the proximity of infected neighbours.

The bird has evolved an extraordinary respiratory system – one that can maintain a constant supply of oxygen to the muscles during flight and provide enough oxygen to sing at the same time. A bird’s respiratory system takes up about 20% of its internal volume, similar to another animal with a huge oxygen demand—the horse. In contrast, the human respiratory system occupies about 5% of its internal volume. Despite the evolutionary advantages, there can be disadvantages that, if not addressed, can result in decreased health and performance.

One of a Kind: The Unique Avian Respiratory System
The avian respiratory system is structurally and functionally unique among air-breathing vertebrates. Unlike the reciprocating mammalian respiratory system, which terminates in large alveolar air spaces, the avian lung is a unidirectional, flow-through system that terminates in small air capillaries.

The avian respiratory system consists of two lungs where gas exchange occurs and several air sacs that serve as mechanical ventilators. The avian bronchus is a branching, three-tiered system that gives rise to primary and secondary bronchi and tertiary parabronchi. This means that the trachea divides into primary bronchi, each of which passes through the lungs and ends in the abdominal air sacs. Secondary bronchi arise from the primary bronchi in the lungs and supply air to the other air sacs (Figure 1).

The parabronchi form an intricate system of branching and interlacing thin-walled air capillaries surrounded by exchange tissue. The structure of this tissue is such that the blood capillaries are exposed to air on all sides, greatly increasing the surface area available for gas exchange. In contrast, mammalian alveolar blood capillaries are exposed to air on only two sides. This makes the avian gas exchange system highly efficient.

Air sacs make up the largest volume of the avian respiratory system. They serve to facilitate the continuous flow of large volumes of air through the lungs, thereby increasing efficiency. A key difference in the avian respiratory system is that respiration is unidirectional. This means that it takes two complete cycles (two inhalations and two exhalations) to move a given volume of oxygen-rich air through the lung and air sac system. The one direct inhalation and exhalation cycle of mammals may seem simpler, but this system is unable to maintain a constant volume of air.

Figure 1: Anatomy of the bird’s respiratory system.

What does this mean for the bird?
Taking into account the blood-gas barrier, respiratory surface area, lung volume, and pulmonary blood capillary volume, the avian lung allows for a significant increase in efficiency compared to the mammalian lung. This increased efficiency may translate into optimized physiological performance through increased oxygen exchange. However, the unique structure of the avian respiratory system means that care must be taken to maintain health and performance.

There are several factors in poultry management that can affect the health of the bird’s respiratory system. First and foremost is bird management. Zoohygiene, environmental and climatic conditions, ventilation, stocking density, and housing type all play an important role in the “quality” of the available air. In addition, exposure to pathogens plays a critical role.

From the nasal associated lymphoid tissues to the bronchial associated lymphoid tissues, the respiratory tract is the bird’s first line of defense against pathogens. There are several common respiratory pathogens—both bacterial and viral—that challenge birds at different ages (Figure 2).

Several avian viruses can cause, among other clinical signs, airway obstruction, which often leads to decreased performance, morbidity, and ultimately death. In addition, there are numerous common bacteria and non-specific pathogens that directly or indirectly affect a bird’s respiratory system, adding to a complex problem.

What does this mean for the farmer?
Animals with compromised respiratory systems have low blood oxygen levels, leading to discomfort, reduced vitality, and decreased feed intake. Ultimately, this leads to reduced performance and even increased mortality rates. In addition to the economic losses caused by reduced flock performance due to respiratory problems, the above-mentioned diseases also result in additional costs for the farmer that affect the bottom line.

With the goal of avoiding the manifestation of larger complex problems, these additional expenses typically include costs associated with:

• improved biosecurity and sanitation
• vaccination programs
• medical treatments

In addition, certain diseases where prevention has been unsuccessful may require the culling of the entire flock, resulting in a significant financial loss to the farmer. In places where compensation for lost flocks is not available, this can be ruinous for farmers. Therefore, preventive measures are of paramount importance.

Signs That All Is Not Right.
Routine inspection of several metrics of the flock can help determine if something is not well with the birds. These data points can include:

• age
• vaccination status
• previous medicinal treatments
• mortality
• weight gain
• laying rate
• hatchability
• feed and water intake

Behavioral signs—specifically activity level, attentiveness, perching behavior, huddling, and posture—are also important to take note of and can provide many clues to the health of the flock. When considering the clinical signs that are evident in a flock with respiratory problems, we can categorize these into what we can hear and see.

What we see…
A very common sign is an open beak, indicating that the bird is panting. This may be due to thermal stress (trying to cool down) or trying to clear its airways of possible mucus. The nostrils and sinuses often show signs of swelling and some kind of discharge, and the eyes may show signs of conjunctivitis, or they may be foamy and/or sunken (Figure 3). The comb and wattle may be visibly swollen and discolored. The bird’s posture can tell a lot, especially if the feathers appear to be ruffled, the wings drooping, and the bird is hunched over, moribund.

What we hear…

Attentive ears will normally pick up irregular sounds in a flock, like, for example, sniveling. This sound is usually associated with a mild inflammation typically associated with viral infections, although it can sometimes occur with vaccination reactions. When birds are heard sniffing and grunting, this often indicates more irritated mucous membranes in the upper respiratory tract, often associated with signs of conjunctivitis.

Tracheal rales and honking are clinical signs that we can hear with both viral and bacterial infections, especially with Infectious Bronchitis (IBV), Newcastle Disease (ND), and colibacillosis infections. These signs are a clear indication of excess mucus, mucus in the nasal cavity, and tracheal inflammation. It should be noted, though, that all these clinical signs can also be heard when the house’s climate and environment are not satisfactory. On the other hand, shrieking, gasping, wheezing, and coughing are signs of critical respiratory disease and are typically associated with IBV, ND, Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT), Avian Influenza (AI), and colibacillosis. These birds have severely inflamed airways with thick mucus and are in danger of suffocating.

How Can We Deal with Respiratory Problems?
For most avian respiratory diseases, the best prevention methods are vaccination and biosecurity. In fact, vaccination is required by law in some countries for certain diseases such as ND and IBV. Outbreaks of ND are considered serious because of their potential to be velogenic, characterized by rapid spread and up to 100% mortality.

There is currently a global focus on AI and how best to manage this disease. Preventive treatment in the form of vaccination is not yet standard, so biosecurity and good farm hygiene play a fundamental role, as the virus is highly contagious, easily spread and is not only highly pathogenic to many bird species but some strains can also spread to the human population. While good biosecurity and farm management are the basic tools to prevent major respiratory problems, antibiotics remain a necessary tool to manage pathogenic pressures on farms that threaten animal welfare, reduce performance, and promote diseases that are harmful to animals and, ultimately, humans.

Phytogenic Additives Can Help
Despite their usefulness, the use—or overuse—of antibiotics in the industry has come under scrutiny. Alternatives to antibiotics have become increasingly important, and the use of phytogenic feed additives as adjuncts to conventional methods is one area that shows promise. This is reflected in the increased research into the efficacy of phytogenic compounds. There are many scientific studies demonstrating the various beneficial effects on poultry.

The use of phytogenics during respiratory challenges in poultry has beneficial effects. Both in combination with conventional treatments or as a preventive aid, they can help alleviate respiratory signs and facilitate breathing, providing comfort and improved well-being. Some phytogenic additives can help thin mucus, making it easier to clear from the airways. In addition, these phytogenic additives, with their antispasmodic and expectorant properties, facilitate airway clearance and breathing during infection.

Other phytogenic compounds are known for their cooling properties. These compounds activate certain cold receptors on mucus membranes, creating a cooling effect and promoting the feeling of easier air intake. Birds benefit from this effect not only when they are congested, but also in situations where there are large temperature fluctuations.

Phytogenic Dietary Feed Supplements in Action
The supportive effects of a phytogenic dietary supplement, BronchoVest, on respiratory signs were investigated in a controlled trial with Ross308 broilers. Birds (n=384) were assigned to one of six groups (T0-T5). All birds were vaccinated against ND with La Sota strain on day 15 and challenged with an intratracheal pathogenic field isolate of Escherichia coli on day 22. BronchoVest was administered either via the drinking water or as a spray application after vaccination and challenge treatment. All birds were monitored, pen-wise, for clinical signs four times per day for up to seven days post challenge. The following respiratory signs were observed: head swelling, nasal discharge, sneezing, coughing, and dyspnea. Each clinical sign was scored on a scale of 0 (no sign) to 3 (severe).

The groups of challenged birds supplemented with BronchoVest had decreasing respiratory signs over the supplementation period compared to the birds in the T1 positive control group (Figure 4).
At the end of the monitoring period, the supplemented groups were similar to the unchallenged groups, in contrast to the positive control group. These trial results clearly demonstrated the ability of phytogenic supplements such as BronchoVest to help reduce respiratory signs in at-risk birds.

BronchoVest combines the synergistic effects of several active phytogenic ingredients to help birds with respiratory signs. This is particularly helpful in cases of viral respiratory disease where the immune system is challenged and damaged mucous membranes are susceptible to bacterial infection. BronchoVest is a flexible and easy-to-use tool for farmers to improve bird health and performance by addressing respiratory issues.

BronchoVest: Your tool for better breathing birds.